Parasitology (Helminthology) Essay Example for Free

Parasitology (Helminthology) Essay Loa loa is a filarial parasite transmitted by tabanid female flies of the genus Chrysops (C silacea and C dimidiate). The incidence of infection within endemic region of the central and west African rain forest is high with 20-40% of the population being microfilaraemic , and about twice as many habouring adult worms without showing patent microfilaraemia (Dupont et al.,2007). The adult worms actively migrate through subcutaneous tissues at rates of up to 1cm/ min. Female Loa loa measures 50- 70mm in length and 0. 5mm in diameter, while the males measures 30 -35mm in length and 0.4mm in diameter. The microfilariae forms, measures 290-300Â µm by 6-8Â µm in size. During infection the microfilariae forms are released into the blood stream, where they become numerous between 10a m and 2pm(diurnal periodicity). Moreso, the presence of the sheath and three or more terminal nuclei distinguish the microfilariae of L. loa from other blood –borne microfilariae. ( Strickland, 2000) Transmission is by day –biting female tabanid flies, which pick up the microfilaria of L loa during blood meals . The injested microfilariae lose their sheath , penetrate the gut wall of the tabanid female fly, and migrate to the cells of the fat body , where they molt twice . The infective filariform larvae (L3)develop in 10 to 12 days and moves to the proboscis. When new host is biting by the female tabanid fly, the infective filariform larvae are injected and develop into adult worms over the course of 6- 12months .( John and Wayne, 2005) L loa infection ( Loiasis) is quite broad , ranging from asymptomatic infection to life threatening complication, which includes meningoencephalitis ,renal failure and endomyocardial fibrosis. Thus , L loa infection often induces a mild to moderate pathology with patients presenting with pruritis, localized angioedema (Calabar swelling), arthralgia or ocular problems caused by conjunctival migration of adult worms. Also, fibrotic or inflammatory reactions around adult worm may cause hydrocele or intestinal blockage. (Strickland, 2000) The level of microfilariaemia is a critical parameter in the transmission of disease(Piessens and Partono ,2007). Immunity may be seen as a control measure of microfilariaemia, killing of adult worm or a resistance to infection that operates against the infective L3 stage. However, studies of the host immune response mechanisms implicated in the control of microfilaraemia , in the amicrofilaraemic ( Mf- ) individual have shown evidence of antibody- dependent cell cytotoxicity, not only for Loa loa infection, but also for other filariasis. Thus, the circulating anti- sheath antibodies is present in sera of amicrofilaraemic (Mf- ) Loa loa infected individual and absent in heavily infected (Mf+)microfilaraemic individual ( Pinder et al ., 1990) Many studies on molecular biology, concerning cellular immune responses induced by filariae infections and their implication in protection and control of microfilaraemia have been carried out. Although , no studies have been published on the cellular response of Loa loa , but a greater cellular reactivity have been reported in non – endemic individual,who are amicrofilaraemic(Mf) , in comparison with endemic individual who are microfilaraemic (Mf+) infected with Loa loa(ref). Thus , the T -cell cellular response plays an important role in mediating immunity and major role for antibody dependent cellular cytotoxic mechanisms in destroying parasites. (Couissinier and Dessein, 1995) The objective of this term paper aims at looking at the role of pathology , mediated by cellular immune response in an Loa loa infected individuals. Source: (www.cdc.gov) Date :02/19/2011 Figure 1. Diagrammatic LIFE CYCLE OF Loa loa During a blood meal, an infected fly (genus Chrysops, day-biting flies) introduces third-stage filarial larvae onto the skin of the human host, where they penetrate into the bite wound. The larvae develop into adults that commonly reside in subcutaneous tissue. The female worms measure 50 to 70 mm in length and 0.5 mm in diameter, while the males measure 30 to 35 mm in length and 0.4 mm in diameter. Adults produce microfilariae measuring 250 to 300 ÃŽ ¼m by 6 to 8 ÃŽ ¼m, which are sheathed and have diurnal periodicity. Microfilariae are usually recovered from spinal fluids, urine, and sputum. During the day they are found in peripheral blood, but during the non- circulation phase, they are found in the lungs. The tabanid fly ingests microfilariae during a blood meal. After ingestion, the microfilariae lose their sheaths and migrate from the flys midgut through the hemocoel to the thoracic muscles of the arthropod. There the microfilariae develop into first-stage larvae (L1) and subsequently into third-stage infective larvae (L3). The third-stage infective larvae migrate to the fly proboscis and can infect another human when the fly takes a blood meal. PATHOLOGY of Loa loa Clinical manifestations are variable and are more significant in visitors to an endemic region than in indigenous people. Severity ranges from a mild nuisance as the occasional worm passes beneath the conjunctiva of the eye to significant CNS invasion and coma in people with a high microfilaremia. (Strickland, 2000) The most common and characteristic findings in loiasis are Calabar swellings, which are focal regions of angioedema, usually located in the extremities. These erythematous swellings occur suddenly, range in size from 5 to 15 cm, and resolve gradually over hours to days. The cause is unknown, but they may represent an immune response to antigenic material at a region where the worm has migrated. Calabar swellings generally occur at only one site at a time and may recur sporadically for years, even after a person has left an endemic region. Interestingly, they are more common in visitors to an endemic region than in the local inhabitants. Fatigue and arthralgias also are not uncommon. ( Strickland ,2000) Subconjunctival migration of the adult worm, which is the eye worm, is generally accompanied by transient swelling of the eye lid and intense conjunctivitis. Although most episode resolve spontaneously and completely, however rare cases of retinal artery occlusion and macular retinopathy due to aberrant migration of the adult worm have reported (Ralph and Eagle(Jr), 2010). The most serious complication of Loa loa infection is meningoencephalitis, which is associated with the central nervous system CNS and occurs predominantly in patients with high numbers of circulating microfilariae. The severity of CNS involvement ranges from mild headache, meningismus coma and death. More so, the microfilariae are found in the cerebrospinal fluid, and in fatal cases, degenerating microfilariae result to necrotic granulomas in the bra in. ( Oyerinde , 1999) Another serious complication associated Loa loa infection, is membranous glomerulonephritis. It occurs in patients with hematuria and proteinuria, which may be due to immune complex. Also, Loiasis may be one cause of tropical pulmonary eosinophilia. Lymphadenopathy and lymphadenitis are also features of loiasis , but are less prevalent than in other filarial infection. Thus , when Loa loa microfilariae are found within lymph nodes , they may be intravascular or within adjacent microabscesses, they also wander throughout the body and have been reported seen in sleep , lung , gut and CNS.(Oyerinde , 1999) Loiasis have also been implicated in the etiology of some cases of endomyocardial fibrosis in equatorial Africa based on the higher prevalence of endomyocardial fibrosis in Loa – endemic areas than in other regions in Africa and higher level of antibodies detected in some individuals and also higher levels of antifilarial antibodies is reported to have been detected in some ind ividual with endomyocardial fibrosis. (Oyerinde, 1999) (Source. Marty and Anderson, 1995) Figure 2. Adult nematodes migrating beneath the conjunctiva of the human eye. . IMMUNE RESPONSE AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF Loa loa Immunity may be seen as control of microfilaraemia, killing of adult worm or a resistance to infection that operates against the infective L3 stage. Like the other microfilarial nematode , Loa loa is able to survive in it host by modulating the host immune response .However, studies of the host immune mechanism implicated in the control of microfilaraemia in the amicrofilaraemic individuals have shown evidence of antibody -dependent cellular cytotoxicity in Loa loa infection.( Baize et al.,1997 ). Circulating anti –sheath antibodies have been reported to be present in the sera of amicrofilaraemic (Mf-) individual and absent in the sera of microfilaraemic positive individual (Mf+). This antibodies are effective in mediating complement-dependent leukocyte in adherence to micofilariae.( Baize et al., 1997) Many studies on molecular biology, concerning cellular immune responses induced by filariae infections and their implication in protection and control of microfilaraemia have been carried out. Although , no studies have been published on the cellular response of Loa loa , but a greater cellular reactivity have been reported in non – endemic individual,who are amicrofilaraemic(Mf-) , in comparison with endemic individual who are microfilaraemic (Mf+) infected with Loa loa. Thus , the T -cell cellular response plays an important role in mediating immunity and major role for antibody dependent cellular cytotoxic mechanisms in destroying parasites.( Maizels et al,2008). Recently, attention is been paid to the involvement of T helper (Th) subset in antifilarial response. The T – cell response plays an important role in mediating immunity and a major role for antibody dependent cellular cytotoxic mechanisms in damaging parasites. Moreover , many studies have compared the proliferation and cytokine profile of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from microfilaraemic (MF+)individual and amicrofilaraemic individual(Mf -) infected with Loa loa in response to antigens of several parasitic stage. Thus , a stronger lymphoproliferative response and consistent levels of both Th1 ( IL-2 –interleukin- 2,IFN-ÃŽ ³ interferon gamma) and Th2 (IL -4,IL-5) type cytokine are reported to be observed in response to adult worm and microfilariae antigen in amicrofilaraemic (Mf-) patient, while the microfilariae positive(Mf+) patient is characterized by unresponsiveness of T cell to proliferation and production of cytokine .( Baize et al., 1997) The unresponsiveness of T cell in microfilariae positive individual (Mf+) is reportedly associated with the IL-10 cytokines ,which down regulate the function of both the Th-1 and Th-2 cells by inhibiting the proliferation and production of IFN- ÃŽ ³, IL-4 and IL-5. Moreover, a significant high production of IL-10 by amicrofilaraemic (Mf-) individual, compared with microfilariae positive (MF+) individual and similar expression of IL-10 mRNA support the guess that IL-10 alone is not responsible for the unresponsiveness of the T cell in Mf+.( Karita et al.,2010) Furthermore ,the adult female worm and the infective larva L3 elicit Th2 responses , with high IL 4 production and appearance of IgG1 and IgE antibodies ,whereas exposure only to microfilariae elicits Th1 responses , characterized by high initial IFN-ÃŽ ³ production and IgGa antibody. However, chronic exposure to microfilariae can lead to Th2 responses CONCLUSION. The pathology of filariasis is immune- mediated, in which the host immune response plays a major role in protecting and controlling infection in individuals. Although , study carried out on the cellular immune response, concerning the proliferation and production T cellular response in both amicrofilaraemic (Mf-) and microfilariae ( Mf+) individual , is indicative of Th1 and Th2 cytokines response to adult worm and microfilariae antigen in amicrofilariae (Mf-) , and unresponsive in microfilariae (Mf+)(ref).However, T cell unresponsiveness in Mf+ patients associated with the IL-10 down regulation of the Th-1 and Th-2 cytokines is not a conclusive evidence of T cell unresponsiveness to microfilariae positive (Mf+) patient. REFERENCES Baize ,S, Wahl, G, Soboslay,PT, Egwang,TG, and Georges,AJ, (1997). T helper responsiveness in human Loa loa infection; defective specific proliferation and cytokine production by CD4+ T cells fron micofilaraemic subjects compared with amicrofilaraemics. Clin Exp Immunol 108:272-278 . Couissinier – Paris ,P, and Dessein ,AJ, (1995). Schistosomal –specific helper T cell clones from subjects resistant to infection by Schistosoma mansoni are Th0/2. European Journal Immunology 25:2295-302 Dupont , A, Zue-N’dong , J, and Pinder, M, (2007). Common occurrence of amicrofilaraemic Loaloa filariasis within the endemic region. Trans R soc Trop. Med Hyg, 82:730 John, MG, and Wayne, M, (2005). Filarial infections , pp 6. Parasitic Infections of the Skin, 6th (ed) John Wiley and Sons, New York Karita ,H, Taru ,M, and Sakari ,JT, (2010). Loa loa Microfilariae Evade Complement Attack In Vivo by Acquiring Regulatory Proteins from Host Plasma, pp 3886. In; Infection and Immunity , volume 77, America Society of Microbiology. Maizels , RM, Bundy ,DAP, Selkirk, ME, Smith, DF, Anderson ,RM,( 2008). Immunological modulation and evasion by helminthes parasites in human populations. Nature 365 :797- 805. Oyerinde, JPO, (1999). The filarial worm,pp 256-257. Essential of Tropical Medical Parasitology , 1st (ed) University of Lagos Press. Piessens ,WF, and Partono , F, (2007). Host-vector –parasite relationships in human filariasis. Semin Infect Dis 3:131-5 Pinder , M, Dupont, A, Egwang ,TG, (1990) . Identification of a surface on Loaloa microfilariae the recognition of which correlates with the amicrofilaremic state in man .Journal Immunology 141:2480-6 Ralph , C, and Eagle(Jr), MD, (2010). Ocular Pathology Review . Director, Department Of Pathology, Wills Eye Hospital Strickland, GT, (2000). Filarial Infection , pp 754-755. Hunter’s Tropical Medicine and Emerging Infectious Diseases, 8th (ed).

Scrotal PNET in an Adult Patient

Scrotal PNET in an Adult Patient TITLE: Scrotal PNET in an Adult Patient: Radiologic-Pathologic Correlation. AUTHORS: M ª Gabriela Tirapu-de-Sagrario, Sandra Baleato-Gonzà ¡lez, Elena Pintos-Martà ­nez and Roberto Garcà ­a-Figueiras KEY WORDS: Neuroectodermal Tumors, Scrotum, Sarcoma, Groin, Inguinal Canal INTRODUCTION We report a, histologically confirmed, rare case of a peripheral primitive neuroectodermal tumor (pPNET) originating from the scrotal sac in an adult patient. This report emphasizes the important role of pathology examination to reach final diagnosis on the basis of immunohistochemistry and electronic microscopy findings. Outcome depends upon the localization and staging of the tumour, age of the patient, histologic classification, extent of surgical resection and time to treatment. CASE REPORT An 84-year-old man was admitted to our hospital with an inguinoscrotal, irreducible, painless mass with a hard consistency, which had progressed over the last six months. There was no presence of urinary or intestinal symptoms. Alpha-Fetoprotein, beta-HCG and LDH values were found to be normal. The patient was subsequently referred to the Urology Departament and he underwent a pelvic MRI. It confirmed a 12x11x19 cm solid mass, which demonstrated central areas of necrosis and subtle amounts of haemorrhage (Figure 1). This mass demonstrated marked and heterogeneous enhancement after intravenous gadolinium administration as well as evidence of internal vascular flow. Both testes showed a normal morphology and signal on T2-weighted sequences (Figure 1). Surgical excision was performed by the Urology Service and they reported that the spermatic cord, femoral vessels and testes were displaced but not infiltrated by the mass (Figure 2A). Despite the fact that a sarcoma was the suggested dia gnosis on imaging, this case exhibited microscopic pathology features of a rare pPNET tumor in an unexpected location. The presence of neurosecretory granules in the electron microscopy (Figure 3) and the EWS-FLI1 traslocation confirmed the diagnosis. DISCUSSION pPNET is an uncommon tumor that belongs to the Ewing’s Sarcoma family of tumors (1-4). It is an aggressive neoplasm, with large size at presentation, which metastasizes rapidly and predominantly affects children and adolescents (1,3,5).The most common locations are: the chest wall, paraspinal area in the chest, abdomen and pelvis (7,8). Ellinger J, et al (1), performed a MEDLINE search identifying renal, bladder, prostate, ureter and seminal cord PNETs, Hari S et al (3) and Kim MS et al (9) also described kidney and retroperitoneum cases and even an uterus case was described by Peres E et al (10) but, to our knowledge, this is the first pPNET case which originated in the scrotal sac, independent of any organ. This tumor is extremely rare in adults and the clinical findings (large painful mass) do not help to distinguish a benign from a malignant tumor (11). At the presentation most of them grow as scrotal masses rather than inguinal masses because they usually originate just b elow the external inguinal ring (12). PNET tumor shows no specific imaging features, but radiological studies are useful to rule out other possible etiologies, to define the location of the tumor and its morphological characteristics as well as its distance extension (1,3,4). In order to diagnose PNET, and differentiate it from other tumors of the Ewing family, we need to demonstrate the expression of some neural markers on the inmunohistochemical stains, including neurofilament, NSE, Leu-7, vimentin, S-100, CD-56, chromogranin and synaptophysin (2). A definitive finding is the EWS-FLI1 traslocation and the presence of neurosecretory granules in electron microscopy (7,8). In conclusion, we present a histologically confirmed case of an extratesticular peripheral scrotal PNET, which possibly originated from a remnant of neuroectodermic cells of the neural crest. In a case like this one, with a huge genital mass, ultrasound and MRI are very useful modalities to assess the location of the mass, its dependency on any other organ and the tumoral internal structure. These will help us to suggest a possible differential diagnosis however the definitive diagnosis requires histopathological and immunohistochemical examination. REFERENCES Ellinger J, Bastian PJ, Hauser S, et al. Primitive Neuroectodermal Tumor: Rare, highly aggressive differential diagnosis in Urologic Malignancies. J Urol 2006; 68(2):257-262 Gurung P,Attar K andPeters J. Primitive neuroectodermal tumorof thespermatic cord. Int J Urol.2010 Jul;17(7):679-80. Hari S,Jain TP,Thulkar S, et al. Imagingfeaturesofperipheral primitive neuroectodermal tumours. Br J Radiol.2008 Dec;81(972):975-83. Javery O,Krajewski K,ORegan K,el al. A to Z of extraskeletal Ewing sarcoma family of tumors in adults: imaging features of primary disease, metastatic patterns, and treatment responses. AJR Am J Roentgenol.2011 Dec;197(6):W1015-22. Ibarburen C, Haberman JJ, Zerhouni EA. Peripheral primitive neuroectodermal tumors. CT and MRI evaluation. Eur J Radiol. 1996 Feb;21(3):225-32. Fontaine C,Schots R,Braeckman J, et al. Long-term survival in an adult metastatic renal peripheral primitive neuroectodermal tumor (PPNET) with multimodality treatment including high-dose chemotherapy. Ann Oncol.1997 Jul;8(7):691-4. Khong P.L, Chan G.C.F, Shek T.W.H, et al. Imaging of Peripheral PNET: Common and uncommon locations. Clinical Radiology. 2002;57:272-277 Hoffer FA, Gianturco LE, Fletcher JA, et al. Percutaneous Biopsy of Peripheral Primitive Neuroectodermal Tumors and Ewing’s Sarcomas for Cytogenetic Analysis. AJR. 1994;162:1141-1142 Kim MS, Kim B, Park CS, et al. Radiologic Findings of Peripheral Primitive Neuroectodermal Tumor Arising in the Retroperitoneum. AJR. 2006; 186:1125-1132. Peres E, Mattoo TK, Poulik J, et al. Primitive Neuroectodermal Tumor (PNET) of the Uterus in a Renal Allograft Patient: A Case Report. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2005;44:283-285. Lioe TF and Biggart JD. Tumours of the Spermatic Cord and Paratesticular Tissue. A Clinicopathological Study. British Journal of Urology. 1993; 71:600-606 Rodrà ­guez D and Olumi AF. Management of spermatic cord tumors: a rare urologic malignancy. Ther Av Urol. 2012: 4(6): 325-334 FIGURE LEGENDS Figure 1 A) Axial T2 TSE shows a large heterogenous inguinoscrotal mass that displaces the penis (void arrows) but apparently not infiltrates it. B) Axial T1 after intravenous contrast Maximum relative enhancement. It shows central hypoperfusion (black arrows), which is hyperintense on T2 sequences, probably due to necrosis or hemorrhage, and a solid hypervascularized periphery (white arrows). Figure 2 A) Surgical photograph shows the spermatic cord (white arrows), which is displaced but not affected by the large mass. B) A long axis section of the mass. Its observed an heterogenous tumor of mottled appearance with partially embossed, clear brownish areas, which are the solid ones (black asterisks). It also has extensive necrotic and hemorrhagic component (white asterisks). Figure 3 Electronic Microscopy. The presence of neuroendocrine granules (white circles) of various sizes (from 80 to 120 nm) in the cytoplasm of the tumor cells is confirmed. This finding demonstrates the neuroendocrine differentiation of the neuroectodermal tumor.

Overview of The First Red Scare :: essays research papers

In the early part of the twentieth century, Americans feared and fought against the principles of the Bolsheviks. Few Americans today even know what the â€Å"Red Scare† was, let alone fear these ideas. However, many of the basic Bolshevik ideas are alive and well in the United States. Citizens of the United States are beginning to accept and even believe in many principles that the Bolshevik Revolution was all about, including eminent domain, loss of freedom of speech, loss of privacy, and income redistribution in the form of very high tax rates. The textbook years for the Red Scare were from 1917 to 1920, but there were important events before 1917 that preceded the Bolshevik Revolution. â€Å"The first â€Å"reds† were those Americans who supported the French Revolution at the end of the eighteenth century.† (Hoyt, 11) The first Marxian socialists to come to the United States were German immigrants who began arriving in 1848. They slowly began to change the labor organization, and over a few years the Socialist and Communist parties were born. In 1901, all Americans were made aware of left-wing radicalism after an anarchist named Leon Czolgosz assassinated President William McKinley. â€Å"No more was needed to make Americans fear and hate the very words â€Å"anarchist,† â€Å"radical,† â€Å"red† and â€Å"socialist,† all of which they lumped together†. (Hoyt, 13) All of these events culminated in creating a certain fear in Americans from these groups. The climax of the fear of radicals, and the start of the Red Scare was when in November 1917, when the Russian Revolution took place. Earlier that year, there were only 11,060 Bolsheviks in Russia, yet five months later they managed to seize power. When American began to understand this concept, they were all struck with fear. Americans did not want to go back to a controlling government that they had just escaped by coming to America. The Red Scare began because of several bombs that were mailed to many people. These bombs were constructed so that when the person receiving the bomb opens their package, they will be greatly injured, or killed. There were about thirty bombs sent through the mail, and only about five were actually opened. These bombs were addressed to important people like John D. Rockefeller, J.P. Morgan, commissioners of immigration and many others. Bombs were the physical scare to people, but inside, Americans were â€Å"nervous that reds could get into the government and control the people.

Ayn Rand Anthem Paper :: essays papers

Ayn Rand Anthem Paper When born into the world, you are sheltered and nourished. When the appropriate age is reached you begin your schooling. Once your education is complete you are employed and work with complete security in your trade. At forty years of age you retire and spend the rest of your days with your peers, with everything requested provided for you. That is as long as you learn at the same pace as everyone else. If you're too bright you will be punished. And as long as you don't ask too many questions, the overly inquisitive are beaten. As long as you don't care who you are told to sleep with, because we know who your genes are most compatible with. And as long as you don't believe you are any different or any better than anyone else is, because that will cost you your life. You aren't granted a name or an identity or a soul. There are no individuals; there is only the collective. This is the world of Anthem. Ayn Rand composes Anthem in an almost lyrical fashion and the majority of the text embraces poetry more faithfully than it does prose. This does little to affect the storytelling, but it encourages the reader to view the novella as an extended poem which detracts from the seriousness of the piece. Rand presents her tale of a man who dares to make individual choices, to seek knowledge in a dark age, to love the woman of his choice. In a society in which people have no names, no independence, and no values, he is hunted for the unpardonable crime: having the courage to stand above the crowd. Rand's own beliefs and her philosophy are most obviously seen through the protagonist, Equality's, struggles. By having us bear witness to this oppression, her opinion on the detrimental effects of collectivism is projected to us. The world described in Anthem is a primitive one, although it is set in the future. All technological development has been lost, because "What is not done collectively cannot be good," and, "What is not thought by all men cannot be true." (p.81) In this collectivist society, the individual has been lost to assimilation, and all creativity is suppressed. In spite of all of this, Equality has always been different; in the world in which he lives, this is a terrible sin.

St Thomas Aquinas Essay -- Religion Philosophy

St Thomas Aquinas It has been written that "since the day of Aristotle, probably no one man has exercised such a powerful influence on the thinking world as did St Thomas Aquinas." Thomas Aquinas was born in 1225 in Italy of a noble family, thus separated by 900 years to Aristotle. He received his first education at the Abbey of Monte Cassino, going on from there to the University of Naples. In 1243, he joined the Dominican monastic order at Cologin. His most influential teacher was another Dominican, Albertus Magnis, a German who wrote extensively on theological matters and questions of national science, especially biology. Thomas was also a highly successful lecturer, and travelled widely across Europe, particularly on the business of his order and the church. In his short and active life, Thomas produced a prodigious amount of writing: commentaries on biblical books and Aristotelian work, short essays on philosophical problems, and a lengthy compendium of Christian apoletices, the Summa Centra Gentiles, which, as Chambers et. al. writes was probably intended for Dominican missionaries working to convert heretics and infidels. St Thomas begins the Summa Centra Gentiles as writes by reaffirming what Aristotle claimed at the beginning of Metaphysics, namely, he that studies the end or purpose of the universe is rightly called a wise man. He is wise because he is studying that which is highest and most noble among the subjects of study: Truth. Truth, Aquinas claims, i...

Description of Jail Essay

A description of jail’s place in corrections and its role throughout history A summary of the history of state and federal prisons A comparison of the similarities and differences between security levels in jails, state prisons, and federal prisons An explanation of factors influencing growth in jails, state prisons, and federal prisons Jails have been present within the criminal justice system for as long as you can probably date back. Jails play a vital role in the correction system. When jails originated they were used to serve the sole purpose of keeping an individual confined. In the beginning the jails and their conditions were inhumane and very harsh. Jails were not they type of place that individuals would like to be and often times people feared the possibility of having to go to jail. There are many reasons why people feared going to jail and one of the main reasons were because of the conditions that present in jail. There were many times where the inmates were not fed and they hygienic conditions were poor. As time progressed factors about jails changed. Jails were no longer only used to house criminals but they were also used to rehabilitate the criminal and allow them to opportunity change enough to be released safely into society. As time progressed jails begin to add programs that allow them to advance and further themselves. It is now possible to obtain a high school diploma while being incarcerated in jail. There are now programs that help aid drug addicts and alcoholics recover from their addictions before they are released. There are also programs that allow inmates to obtain a trade degree that they can use once they are released back into society. You made a lot of valid points within your post. I use to always wonder why exactly criminals committed the crimes that they did, like what possessed them to do those type of things? I wonder now if criminals weigh crime and punishment why would they feel as of the reward that they will gain from committing a crime is worth their life and their freedom most of the time. Maybe these thoughts vary from person to person meaning what I may not think will be worth the punishment that will be received from a crime but others may not agree with my thought process.

Tikal

With its plethora of palaces, altars, shrines, and soaring temples, Tikal may be the premier Maya site. For over 1,100 years, the Maya built here, expanding the site until it covered an area of 25 square miles. In its heyday, the city may have had 100,000 residents, and it was ruled by a single dynasty of over 39 successive rulers. The heart of the site is the Great Plaza, which is surrounded by the Central Acropolis, the North Acropolis, and Temples I and II.In the North Acropolis alone, 100 buildings lie piled atop one another. Temple I is 145 feet tall, but it is dwarfed by Temple IV. At 212 feet, Temple IV, built around A. D. 741, is the tallest pre-Columbian structure in the Western Hemisphere. Champey is located 11km to the south of Lanquin, in a valley with steep walls, surrounded by tropical humid forest. There is a 300m long limestone bridge, on top of which there are several natural pools of different sizes, filled with crystalline mountain spring water.The pools are 3-14 f t. deep. Underneath the bridge is the Cahabon River. At the end of the bridge, the water from the pools falls rejoining the river, forming a 40ft waterfall. The color of the water changes during the year depending on the season, sun and other natural factors, making for unique picture-taking opportunities. It is a beautiful place, often called idyllic. Copan is located in northern Honduras. The first descriptions of Copan appeared in a letter to King Philip II of Spain dated March 8, 1576.Home to the longest text in Precolumbian America, the stairway provides a history of Copan written in stone. More than 2,200 blocks rise from steps that recorded the history of the 16th ruler Yax K’uk Mo’. Carved out of greenish andesite makes this even more fascinating. Alter Q shows Yax K’uk Mo’ transferring power to the final ruler of Copan, Yax Pac. During Holly Week, Antigua Guatemala hosts the most beautiful religious celebration in the America, when huge processio ns wind their way through the town’s streets.The Spanish Colonial style permeates every part of the town: its houses, churches, squares, parks and ruins, also its traditions and folklore as well Copan Ruinas, a small and beautiful town just a few minutes from the Copan Mayan Ruins. It is a peaceful town that offers you all basic services you need to make your visit an enjoyable experience, such as hotels, restaurants, museums, handicrafts, and many other amenities. Just a few minutes away, the Copan Archaelogical Park, declared by UNESCO a Patrimony to Humanity, is waiting for you.Copan Ruinas is located on the Western side of Honduras, very near the border with Guatemala. It is only 12 km from the border crossing point of El Florido, and about 240 km from Guatemala City and 160 km from San Pedro Sula, which is the main Honduran gateway into Copan. http://www. semucchampey. com/en/semuc-champey. html https://www. cia. gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gt. html http://www. pbs. org/wgbh/nova/maya/media/copa_01_q. html http://www. lonelyplanet. com/guatemala/practical-information/money-costs http://mayaruins. com/yucmap. html